overall view of applications of biotechnology-FOB- 8th chapter- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

* Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."[6] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
* Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
* Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
* Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
* White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.[citation needed] The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy.

Biotechnology also proves its immense applications at every step of human life such as, health care, crop improvement, development of valuable products and abatement of environmental problems. The book is comprised of fourteen chapters based on updated information on various aspects of biotechnology e.g. microbiology, biochemistry, cell biology, genetics, molecular biology, physiology and tissue engineering, environment, health, where biotechnology finds tremendous application. All the chapters have been written by eminent academics and well known scientists in the field, thus ensuring a good balance between theory and practice. The information covered in the book are focused on following aspects: Applications of biotechnology in exploitation of microbial diversity.
Abatement of environmental problems and pollution control using biotechnological approaches. Utility of biotechnology in public health care, human welfare and medical biology. Applications of biotechnology in crop improvement and development of resistant crops. Use of biotechnology in conservation of biological resources. Assessment of hazardous compounds in the environment. Use of biotechnology in remediation of diseases and drug designing. Further extensive illustration and highlighting of major applications of biotechnology make this book invaluable to biotechnologist, microbiologist as well as students dealing with applied microbiology, industrial microbiology, metabolic engineering, environmental biotechnology, stress biotechnology and cell and tissue engineering.

photophosphorylation- cyclic and non cyclic photosynthesis- fob-btechbiotechnology-7th chapter-photosynthesis

Photophosphorylation is the process of creating ATP using a Proton gradient created by the Energy gathered from sunlight. The process of creating the Proton gradient resembles that of the electron transport chain of Respiration. But since formation of this proton gradient is light-dependent, the process is called Photophosphorylation.

Chemiosmosis - Chemiosmosis is the process of using Proton movement to join ADP and Pi. This is accomplished by enzymes called ATP synthases or ATPases. The CF1-ATPase of the Thylakoid membrane is shown on the left. As protons pass through this enzyme ADP and Pi are joined to make ATP. The movement of the Protons through this enzyme provides the Energy needed to make ATP.

Noncyclic Photophosphorylation really refers to the ATP generated by Protons moved across the Thylakoid membranes during the Z-scheme. The Cytb6-f complex acts as an electron transport chain. As the electrons lose Energy (during a series of re/dox reactions) Protons are moved into the Thylakoid space. This Proton gradient can be used to generate ATP chemiosmotically.
The electrons lost by P680 (PS-II) are taken up by P700 (PS-I) and do not get back to P680 i.e., unidirectional and hence it is called non- cyclic phosphorylation. The electrons pass through the primary acceptor, plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome complex, plastocyanin (PC) and finally to P700. The electrons given out by P700 are taken up by primary acceptor and are ultimately passed on to NADP. The electrons combine with H+ and reduce NADP to NADPH2. The hydrogen ions also called protons are made available by splitting up of water. Non-cyclic photophosphorylation needs a constant supply of water molecules. The net result of non-cyclic phosphorylation is the formation of oxygen, NADPH and ATP molecules. Oxygen is produced as a waste product of photosynthesis


During Cyclic Photophosphorylation the electrons are recycled, hence the name cyclic photophosphorylation. The excited electrons resulting from the absorption of light in photosystem I are received by the primary electron acceptor and then transferred to the cytb6-f complex which acts as an electron transport chain. The electrons return back to the reaction center of Photosystem I, where the cycle is ready to start all over. The electrons are using to translocate Protons which the ATPase uses to synthesize ATP. No reduction of NADP+ occurs in Cyclic Photophosphorylation.

Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation - During the movement of electrons shown in red, H+ moves across the membrane. The movement of electrons "drives" the reactions shown in blue.
Cyclic Photophosphorylation - During the movement of electrons shown in red, H+ moves across the membrane. These electrons don't generate NADPH, but the H+ transport can produce .
The electrons released by P700 of PS-I in the presence of light are taken up by the primary acceptor and are then passed on to ferredoxin (Fd), plastoquinone (PQ), cytochrome complex, plastocyanin (PC) and finally back to P700 i.e., electrons come back to the same molecule after cyclic movement.Cyclic Photophosphorylation

The cyclic photophosphorylation also results in the formation of ATP molecules just like in non - cyclic photo phosphorylation.

As the electrons move downhill in the electron transport chain, they lose potential energy and ATP molecules are formed in the same way as in mitochondria during respiration.

During cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons from photosystem - I are not passed to NADP from the electron acceptor. Instead the electrons are transferred back to P700. This downhill movement of electrons from an electron acceptor to P700 results in the formation of ATP and this is termed as cyclic photophosphorylation. It is very important to note that oxygen and NADPH2 are not formed during cycle photophosphorylation.

oxygenic photosynthesis- fob-btechbiotechnology-7th chapter-photosynthesis

Oxygenic and Anoxygenic Photosynthesis - In the Cyanobacteria and Pro chlorophyta photosynthesis is oxygenic, i.e. there is evolution of oxygen.

There are two linked photosystems involved in photosynthesis. The electron donor is H2O, and oxygen is the ultimate product of oxidation. They are, therefore, aerobic phototrophs. The photosynthetic apparatus of the Cyanobacteria is remarkably similar in structure and function to the eukaryote chloroplast. Their light harvesting pigments, Chl a and phycobiliproteins, are homologous to those of the chloroplast of Rhodophyta (red algae).
Oxygenic photosynthesis is the principal producer of both oxygen and organic matter on earth. The primary step in this process — the conversion of sunlight into chemical energy — is driven by four, multisubunit, membrane-protein complexes that are known as photosystem I, photosystem II, cytochrome b 6 f and F-ATPase. Structural insights into these complexes are now providing a framework for the exploration not only of energy and electron transfer, but also of the evolutionary forces that shaped the photosynthetic apparatus.
Type b Cytochrome - There is evidence that a b-type cytochrome IS present in the photosynthetic electron transport system.
Cytochrome b has been demonstrated in Rhodopseudomons sphaeroides (E°‘ = + 50, mV) and R. capsulata (E°' = + 60 mV), and there are indications that it is adjacent to cytochrome c in the cyclic system. It is likely that cytochrome b may be present even in organisms where it has been previously reported to be absent.
Small amounts of cytochrome b could be masked by other substances. Chromatium vinosum and Chlorobium thiosulphatophilum lire reported to contain one molecule of cytochrome b per reaction centre (Knaff and Buchanan, 1975).
It is likely that cytochrome b has a role in cyclic photosynthetic flow in the Chromatiaceae, Chlorobiaceae as well as in the Rhodospirillaceae.
Type c Cytochrome - A number of different c type cytochromes have been found in the electron transport system of photosynthetis bacteria. In the purple nonsulphur bacterium Rhodospirillum rubrum a soluble c type cytochrome is associated with P870 of the reaction centre. This cytochrome is referred to as cytochrome c2, and has a high mid point potential of about + 30.0 mV.
Cytochrome c2 appears to be the electron donor to P870. In PSI of higher plants, plastocyanin (PC), a copper protein, is the electron donor to P700. Algae apparently represent an intermediate stage in evolution, since their electron donor to P700 is a c type cytochrome, although plastocyanin can also be present. Rhodospirillum also contains cytochrome cc' with two different haeme groups.

Purple sulphur bacteria like Chromatium contain cytochrome c552 in addition to cytochromes C2 and cc’. Cytochrome C552 (MW 72,000) has two haeme groups and one FMN.

The green sulphur bacterium Chlorobium has three cytochromes of the c type, but none of these has the high redox potential of cytochrome, c2 of purple bacteria and cytochrome f of higher green plants.

bacterial photosynthesis- fob-btechbiotechnology-7th chapter-photosynthesis

In prokaryotes (blue green bacteria, Prochlorophyta, purple and green bacteria) the photosynthetic structures are chromatophores.
In bacterial photosynthesis, a quantum of visible light is absorbed by a molecule of chlorophyll a or a molecule of a carotenoid and the energy is then transferred to another chlorophyll in a special reaction centre causing the ejection of an electron. This electron is then accepted by ferrodoxin and the oxidized chlorophyll oxidizes the terminal cytochrome of the electron transport system.
The resulting charged system, with a large potential difference between its termini is used to produce ATP (photophosphorylation) and the reducing power in the form of TPNH, which are both used in the reduction of CO2 .
The amount of ATP and TPNH formed in this system varies depending on the photophosphorylation system. In cyclic photo­phosphorylation, the electrons are transferred from the reduced ferredoxin to oxidized cytochrome through a chain of quinones and cytochromes in a close circle which leads to the conversion of a part of the absorbed light into energy. In the "noncyclic photophosphorylation", the electrons at the reducing end of the chain are used to reduce NADP and to complete the electron transport, electrons must be supplied from an another source. In photosynthetic bacteria, these electrons are derived by the oxidation of a substrate other than water and therefore no oxygen is released.

Photosynthesizing bacteria are generally obligate anaerobes. Bacterial photosynthesis is also more primitive in that the photosynthetic apparatus is not found in chloroplasts but in particles attached to the extensions of the plasma membrane. With the use of energy and the reducing power supplied by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis, the autotrophic bacteria reduce CO2 to derive their (carbon requirement. Although this process is fundamentally biosynthetic, it is ultimately linked to autotrophic energy metabolism.
Examples:
In the Rhodospirillaceae (purple non sulphur bacteria) and the Chromatiaceae (purple sulphur bacteria) the thylakoids are extensions of the cell membrane. They may be in the form of vesicles, tubular bodies or lamellae. In the Chlorobiaceae (green sulphur bacteria) the sacs forming the photosynthetic apparatus are not continuous with the cell membrane

wucheraria bancrofti life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

Wuchereria bancrofti or Filaria, is a parasitic filarial nematode worm spread by a mosquito vector. It is one of the three parasites that cause lymphatic filariasis, an infection of the lymphatic system by filarial worms. It affects over 120 million people, primarily in Africa, South America, and other tropical and sub-tropical countries [1]. If the infection is left untreated it can develop into a chronic disease called Elephantiasis. Limited treatment modalities exist and no vaccines have been developed.

Different species of the following genera of mosquitoes are vectors of W. bancrofti filariasis depending on geographical distribution. Among them are: Culex (C. annulirostris, C. bitaeniorhynchus, C. quinquefasciatus, and C. pipiens); Anopheles (A. arabinensis, A. bancroftii, A. farauti, A. funestus, A. gambiae, A. koliensis, A. melas, A. merus, A. punctulatus and A. wellcomei); Aedes (A. aegypti, A. aquasalis, A. bellator, A. cooki, A. darlingi, A. kochi, A. polynesiensis, A. pseudoscutellaris, A. rotumae, A. scapularis, and A. vigilax); Mansonia (M. pseudotitillans, M. uniformis); Coquillettidia (C. juxtamansonia).
During a blood meal, an infected mosquito introduces third-stage filarial larvae onto the skin of the human host, where they penetrate into the bite wound .
They develop in adults that commonly reside in the lymphatics .
The female worms measure 80 to 100 mm in length and 0.24 to 0.30 mm in diameter, while the males measure about 40 mm by .1 mm. Adults produce microfilariae measuring 244 to 296 μm by 7.5 to 10 μm, which are sheathed and have nocturnal periodicity, except the South Pacific microfilariae which have the absence of marked periodicity.
The microfilariae migrate into lymph and blood channels moving actively through lymph and blood .
A mosquito ingests the microfilariae during a blood meal .
After ingestion, the microfilariae lose their sheaths and some of them work their way through the wall of the proventriculus and cardiac portion of the mosquito's midgut and reach the thoracic muscles .
There the microfilariae develop into first-stage larvae and subsequently into third-stage infective larvae .
The third-stage infective larvae migrate through the hemocoel to the mosquito's prosbocis and can infect another human when the mosquito takes a blood meal .

Diagnosis

A blood smear is a simple and fairly accurate diagnostic tool, provided that the blood sample is taken during the period in the day when the juveniles are in the peripheral circulation [5]. Technicians analyzing the blood smear must be able to distinguish between W. bancrofti and other parasites potentially present.

A polymerase chain reaction test can also be performed to detect a minute fraction, as little as 1 pg, of filarial DNA [6].

Sometimes infected people do not have microfilariae in their blood. As a result, tests aimed to detect antigens from adult worms can be used.

Ultrasonography can also be used to detect the movements and noises caused by the movement of adult worms [7].

Dead, calcified worms can be detected by X-ray examinations.
Treatment

The severe symptoms caused by the parasite can be avoided by cleansing the skin, surgery, or the use of therapeutic drugs, such as Diethylcarbamazine(DEC), ivermectin, or albendazole. The drug of choice however, is DEC, which can eliminate the microfilariae from the blood and also kill the adult worms with a dosage of 6 mg/kg semiannually or annually [8]. A polytherapy treatment that includes ivermectin with DEC or albendazole is more effective than each drug alone. Protection is similar to that of other mosquito spread illnesses; one can use barriers both physical (a mosquito net), chemical (insect repellent), or mass chemotherapy as a method to control the spread of the disease.

ascaris life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

Adult worms live in the lumen of the small intestine. A female may produce up to 240,000 eggs per day, which are passed with the feces . Fertile eggs embryonate and become infective after 18 days to several weeks , depending on the environmental conditions (optimum: moist, warm, shaded soil). After infective eggs are swallowed , the larvae hatch , invade the intestinal mucosa, and are carried via the portal, then systemic circulation to the lungs . The larvae mature further in the lungs (10-14 days), penetrate the alveolar walls, ascend the bronchial tree to the throat, and are swallowed . Upon reaching the small intestine, they develop into adult worms . Between 2 and 3 months are required from ingestion of the infective eggs to oviposition by the adult female. Adult worms can live 1 to 2 years.
(Used with permission: DPDx, the CDC Parasitology Website)

Symptoms/Pathology

Infection with Ascaris lumbricoides often causes no symptoms. Infections with a large number of worms may cause abdominal pain or intestinal obstruction. Adults feed on the contents of the small intestine and in heavy infections this may compound problems in malnourished individuals (especially children).

Migration of larvae may cause localized reactions in various organs. Penetration of the larvae from capillaries into the lungs can lead to Loeffler's pneumonia, in which pools of blood and dead epithelial cells clog air spaces in the lungs. Resulting bacterial infections can be fatal.

diagnosis:
Albendazole,Mebendazole,Levamisole,Pyrantel pamoate,Ivermectin

taeniasolium life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

Taenia solium is the Human Tapeworm that comes from pork. The pig becomes infected from ingesting the eggs and once inside the intestine, the eggs release the oncosphere (first-stage larvae), making them an intermediate host, the oncosphere then separates and invades the intestinal wall migrating to the striated muscles, where it develops into a cyst-like structure, a cysticercus. The cysticercus can survive for several years in the tissue of the pig. Primates, sheep, Dogs, and cats can also be intermediate hosts. Humans become infected by ingesting raw or undercooked infected meat, making them the definitive host.
Taeniasis develops when the adult tapeworm infests the human intestine. The worm can grow to be 3-6 feet (0.9-1.8 m) long there. It usually causes no symptoms but the host becomes a continuous source of taenia eggs in the feces which may contaminate food.


STEP 1. Infected humans (definitive host) excrete the eggs or gravid proglottids in their feces, passing the parasite from the gastrointestinal tract onto nearby vegetation. In egg or gravid proglottid form, T. solium is able to remain viable anywhere from days to months. T. solium can be diagnosed at this point in the life cycle.

Note: Autoinfection can also occur at this point in the life-cycle via fecal-oral contamination. In this case, eggs or gravid proglottids re-enter the body through the mouth and often travel to the central nervous system (CNS), the muscles or the eye, where they develop into cysticerci. The presence of cysticerci in these locations leads to the pathogenesis of cysticercosis (neurocysticercosis in the CNS). [4,5]

STEP 2. Pigs (intermediate host) acquire infection by eating and digesting the eggs or gravid proglottids along with the parasitized vegetation.

STEP 3. The eggs or gravid proglottids migrate to the pig's intestine and as oncospheres, break through the intestinal wall. Then, via the circulatory system, they embed themselves in the muscles of the pig and develop into cysticerci (the infective form of T. solium). Cysticerci have the ability to persist in the muscle for many years.

STEP 4. Humans acquire the infection by eating the undercooked or raw flesh of an infected animal.

STEP 5,6. Cystercerci migrate to the small intestine of the human host and develop into their adult tapeworm form normally within two months. By attaching to the intestinal wall with their scolices (hooked structures), these adult tapeworms may persist for long periods of time, even years.


Symptoms

The presence of T. solium worms in the human intestines usually does not cause major problems. Diarrhea, constipation,, indigestion, and other mild stomach symptoms are common. Proglottids may also also crawl out of the anus and cause some discomfort or embarrassment.
diagnosis
Diagnosis of cysticercosis depend primarily on confirming the presence hooks of the scolex of T. solium under the microscope. Calcified larvae in the subcutaneous and muscle tissues can be identified by an X-ray examination. CT scans and MRI can detect lesions in the brain.

fasciolopsis buski life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

F.buski is the human largest intestinal fluke. The adult measures
2-7,5 cm by 0.8-2 cm by 0,5-3 mm and lives in the small intestine
and occasionally in the colon and the pylorus attached to the mucosa.
Light infection are usually asymptomatic, but heavily infected individuals
may present abdominal pain, diarrhea, malabsorption, toxemia.


# Immature unembryonated eggs are discharged into the intestine and stool .,
# Each egg becomes embryonated (3-7 weeks) in warm water.
# When fully developed, egg hatchtes to release miracidium.
# Miracidium invades a suitable planorbid snail intermediate host. In the snail the parasites undergo asexual development (generations of sporocysts, redia then cercaria ).
# Cercaria are released from the snail.
# Cervaria then encyst as metacercaria on aquatic plants [particularly Trapa natans (the water caltrop) or the water chestnut, which thrives in ponds fertilised by "night soil" (human faeces)] .
# (still part of 6 on the figure) The mammalian hosts (WE) become infected by ingesting metacercariae on the aquatic plants.

* Note: most common mammalian hosts are pigs, humans and dogs.
* Note: infection occurs if the person uses his teeth to peel the outer covering of the infected plants (the inside, the only edible part, is free of worms).

# (number 7 on the figure) After ingestion, the metacercariae excyst in the duodenum and attach to the mucosa of the jejunal and duodenal wall (intestinal wall).
# (number 8 on the figure) There they develop into adult flukes (20 to 75 mm by 8 to 20 mm) in approximately 3 months, attached to the intestinal wall of the mammalian hosts (humans and pigs).
# (back to number 1) The adults have a life span of about 6 months (some sources say up to one year). They go through sexual reproduction to make the opperculated eggs that are then dischared into the intestine and exit in stool.

entameoba histolytica life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

Etiology
E. histolytica is the major cause of amebic dysentery.

Epidemiology
0.5 to 50% of the population world wide harbors E. histolytica parasites with the higher rates of infection being in underdeveloped countries. 1 to 3% of the population of the USA are infected. Infection is associated with poor hygiene. Humans are the principal host, although dogs, cats and rodents may be infected.

Morphology

Trophozoite: This form has an ameboid appearance and is usually 15-30 micrometers in diameter, although more invasive strains tend to be larger. The organism has a single nucleus with a distinctive small central karyosome (Figure 1A,B). The fine granular endoplasm may contain ingested erythrocytes (Figure 1C). The nuclear chromatin is evenly distributed along the periphery of the nucleus.

Cyst: Entameba histolytica cysts are spherical, with a refractile wall; the cytoplasm contains dark staining chromatoidal bodies and 1 to 4 nuclei with a central karyosome and evenly distributed peripheral chromatin (Figure 2).

Life cycle
Infection occurs by ingestion of cysts on fecally contaminated food or hands. The cyst is resistant to the gastric environment and passes into small intestine where it decysts. The metacyst divides into four and then eight amoebae which move to the large intestine. The majority of the organisms are passed out of the body with the feces but, with larger bolus of infection, some amebae attach to and invade the mucosal tissue forming "flask-shaped" lesions (bomb craters). The organisms encyst for mitosis and are passed through with feces (Figure 3). There are no intermediate or reservoir hosts.
Symptoms

Acute: Frequent dysentery with necrotic mucosa and abdominal pain.

Chronic: Recurrent episodes of dysentery with blood and mucus in the feces. There are intervening gastrointestinal disturbances and constipation. Cysts are found in the stool. The organism may invade the liver, lung and brain where it produces abscesses that result in liver dysfunction, pneumonitis, and encephalitis.

Pathology
Intestinal ulcers (craters/flasks - figure 4) are due to enzymatic degradation of tissue. The infection may result in appendicitis, perforation, stricture granuloma, pseudo-polyps, liver abscess (figure 4); sometimes brain, lung and spleen abscesses can also occur. Strictures and pseudo-polyps result from the host inflammatory response.

Immunology
There is an antibody response after invasive infection (liver abscess or colitis) but it is of questionable significance in immunity, as there is recurrence of enteric episodes in these patients.

Diagnosis
Symptoms, history and epidemiology are the keys to diagnosis. In the laboratory, the infection is confirmed by finding cysts in the stool (Figure 1). E. histolytica infection is distinguished from bacillary dysentery by the lack of high fever and absence PMN leukocytosis.

Distinction must be made from other non-pathogenic intestinal protozoa (e.g., Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba hartmanni, Dientamoeba fragilis, Endolimax nana, Iodamoeba buetschlii, etc.). (Figure 5)

Treatment
Iodoquinol is used to treat asymptomatic infections and metronidazole is used for symptomatic and chronic amebiasis, including extra-intestinal disease.


AMEBIASIS (amebic dysentery, amebic hepatitis)
Infection by Entamoeba histolytica occurs by ingestion of mature cysts (1) in fecally contaminated food, water, or hands. Excystation (2) occurs in the small intestine and trophozoites (3) are released, which migrate to the large intestine. The trophozoites multiply by binary fission and produce cysts (4) , which are passed in the feces. Because of the protection conferred by their walls, the cysts can survive days to weeks in the external environment and are responsible for transmission. (Trophozoites can also be passed in diarrheal stools, but are rapidly destroyed once outside the body, and if ingested would not survive exposure to the gastric environment.) In many cases, the trophozoites remain confined to the intestinal lumen (A: non-invasive infection) of individuals who are thus asymptomatic carriers and cysts passers. In some patients the trophozoites invade the intestinal mucosa (B: intestinal disease), or, through the bloodstream, extraintestinal sites such as the liver, brain, and lungs (C: extra-intestinal disease), with resultant pathologic manifestations. It has been established that the invasive and noninvasive forms represent separate species, respectively E. histolytica and E. dispar, which are morphologically indistinguishable. Transmission can also occur through fecal exposure during sexual contact (in which case not only cysts, but also trophozoites could prove infective

plasmodium life cycle- fob-animal biology- btechbiotechnology- 1st year

The single-celled Plasmodium parasite causes malaria. Plasmodium occurs in four types, each of which causes a different kind of malaria: Plasmodium falciparum causes malignant malaria, which is the most deadly variety; Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale and Plasmodium malariae ("P. malariae") are all more benign, with P. malariae being the least malevolent form. P. malariae infection presents as chronic flu-like symptoms, including fever, fatigue and diarrhea. Malaria treatment includes a drug called primaquine to prevent relapse of the more serious versions of the disease. Chloroquine is more often used to treat P. malariae infection.



1. Sporozoites from salivary glands of mosquito enter liver cells.

2 Liver cell containing early stages of primary erythrocytic parasite.

3 and 4. Stages in the development of primary erythrocytic schizont.

5. Fully developed primary erythrocytic schizont rupturing and releasing merozoites.

6. Liver cell containing merozoites of a seondary erythrocytic cycle of sschizogony.

7-9. Remaining stages in erythrocytic shcizogony ending in release of second generation merozoites.

10. Red cell of circulating blood.

11-14. Stages in erythrocytic schizogony in circulating blood.

15. Fully developed erythrocytic schizont rupturing and releasing merozoites and gametocytes.

16-20. Repetition of erythrocytic schizogony.

21, 22. Development of male gametocyto cyte or microgametocyte in circulating blood.

23, 24. Development of female gametocyte or macrogametocyte in circulating blood.

25. Wall of stomach (midgut) of mosquito.

26. Exflagellating microgametocyte producint microgametes in midgut of mosquito.

27. Macrogametocyte.

28. Microgamete free in stomach of mosquite seeking macrogametocyte.

29. Zygote formed by fertilization of macrogametocyte by microgamete.

30. Ookinete, or elongated traveling zygote about to penetrate wall of midgut.

31. Oocyst formed by zygote after penetration of the midgut wall.

32, 33. Stages in development of sporozoites within oocyst.

34. Rupture of mature oocyst with dispersion of sporozoites, most of which enter the salivary glands of the host.

35. Salivary gland containing mature sporozoites.

general charecteristics of bacteria-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Bacteria
I. General characteristics
A. Most are single celled (there are multicellular cyanobacteria)
B. Heterotrophic and autotrophic
C. Prokaryotic
II. Structure
A. Page 431 figure 21-4 (Curtis)
1. Not all bacteria have flagella or capsules (slime layers)
III. Classification
A. Domain Archaea
1. Chemoautotrophs - thermoacidophiles (love hot and acid), methogens, extreme
halophiles (love salt).
B. Domain Eubacteria
1. Cyanobacteria and most other bacteria.
C. Eubacteria are classified according to shape, arrangement and chemical activity.
1. There are three basic shapes & three different arrangements. Page 429 (Curtis)
a) Coccus (i) = spherical shape
(1) single cocci, diplococci, streptococci and staphylococci
b) Bacillus (i) = rod shaped
(1) single bacillus, diplobacillus and streptobacilli.
(a) Strep throat is caused by a streptobacillus.
c) Spirillum (a)
IV. Movement
A. Many forms have flagella for movement.
B. Many have a sticky capsule (slime layer) that allows them to attach to their food.
V. Protection
A. Some produce toxins
B. Most are protected by numbers.
VI. Feeding and digestion
A. Bacteria secrete enzymes that digest their food and then they absorb the food back into
their cells.
B. Is this intra- or extracellular digestion?
VII. Classified according to living arrangements.
A. saprophytic organisms
1. live on dead things
2. Know the difference between a saprophyte and scavenger
B. Symbiotic
1. Parasitic organisms
a) Neisseria gonorrhea
2. Mutaulistic organisms
a) Many of the digestive tract bacteria produce some of the B vitamins and
vitamin K
3. Commensalistic organisms
a) The bacteria living on your skin.
VIII. Growth requirements for bacteria
A. Proper temperature
1. they like it warm, optimum range is between 26-38ºC
2. But some forms live at below 0ºC and as high as 95ºC.
B. Must have moisture
C. They grow best in the dark.
1. UV light kills bacteria
D. Must have food (Type of food depends on organism)
IX. Circulation & excretion are accomplished by diffusion
X. Respiration
A. Obligate aerobes
1. must have oxygen to live
2. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
B. Obligate anaerobes
1. Can not live in the presence of oxygen
2. Clostridium botulinum
C. Facultative anaerobes
1. Can grow with or without oxygen
2. e.g. Escherichia coli
XI. Reproduction
A. Binary fission
B. Conjugation - bacteria can exchange DNA through small extensions called pili.
XII. Harmful effects of bacteria
A. Cause diseases and disorders
1. Botulism, Tuberculosis and Gonorrhea Neisseria gonorrhoeae
B. Other problems caused by bacteria
1. Food spoilage (many species)
2. Food poisoning Salmonella sp.
3. Boils, pimples, pneumonia, and meningitis, are all caused by different strains of
Staphylococcus aureus
C. **Know how microbes cause disease** page 448 in Curtis
D. Understand the role of antibiotics in treating bacterial diseases.
XIII. Beneficial effects of bacteria
A. Used to produce food: Yogurt, Cottage cheese, Blue cheese and Vinegar
B. Tanning of leather and Curing tobacco
C. Recycle dead organisms
D. Used as a tool in genetic engineering
E. Nitrogen fixation

useful and harmful effects of protozoa-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

PROTOZOAN are organisms that live in the blood, tissues, and intestines, of their host. They are usually very small, generally microscopic, capable of infecting every tissue in the body. The most common protozoan disease is Malaria. Protozoan are usually carried by contaminated water sources and insects (e.g. mosquitoes). Although exceptionally small, these parasites may remain active in the human body for an entire lifetime, causing multiple complications and revisitations, such as malaria fever.
FLUKES (Trematodes), or FLATWORMS, are likely the most common form of parasite found in humans worldwide, including Europe and North America. They are generally flat and oval in shape. They can grow to 3.5 inches in length. They commonly infect human intestines, and can infect other tissues such as the heart, lungs, liver, and kidneys. Flukes are very difficult to get rid of once infected.

protozoa-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

The protozoa are one-celled animals and the smallest of all animals. Most of them can only be seen under a microscope. They do breathe, move, and reproduce like multicelled animals. They live in water or at least where it is damp. Animals in this group include the paramecium, the euglena and the ameba.

Some protozoans are harmful to man as they can cause serious diseases. Others are helpful because they eat harmful bacteria and are food for fish and other animals.

Below is a link to a description of three types of protozoa.

* Ameba
* Paramecium
* Euglena

A protozoa has no inner or outer skeleton. They move a variety of ways. The ameba has a false foot that extends as it moves. The paramecium is covered with hairs and the euglena has a whip-like tail to move.
Digestion A protozoa takes in food via the water and stores the food in sacs called vacuoles. They eat tiny algae and bacteria.
Nervous A protozoa has a very low level reaction to the world around it and does not have a brain per se. They can react to light and temperature changes.
Circulation A protozoa has water flow in through the pores. The water contains the food and oxygen the protozoa needs.
Respiration A protozoa takes in oxygen through the cell membrane and gives off carbon dioxide through the cell membrane.
Reproduction A protozoa reproduces by splitting in half. This is called fission.
Excretion A protozoa has sacs called vacuoles that take in and get rid of water.
Symmetry A protozoa is usually asymmetrical.
Coloration A protozoa is very microscopic and is pale in color generally.

The effect of rumen protozoa on the urinary excretion of purine derivatives in goats
Urinary purine derivative (PD) excretion was estimated to examine the effect of rumen protozoa on total PD excretion in goats fed hay and a concentrate diet. The effect of increasing protozoa number in the rumen on nitrogen (N) balance and urinary PD excretion was determined after inoculation. Protozoa increased slowly until 4 days after inoculation, and on the 5th day after inoculation rapidly, finally (10 days) reaching 4·1×105/ml of rumen contents similar to that before defaunation. Urinary N excretion showed a small (non-significant) decrease. Urinary PD excretion did not change until the 7th day, and then the level decreased on the 8th day after faunation presumably due to the effect of increased protozoa in the rumen. The mean urinary total PD excretion significantly (P<0·05) decreased in the defaunated group compared with that in the faunated group. Comparable changes were not seen in plasma PD level of faunated and defaunated groups.
The degree to which natural levels of UV exposure are deleterious to protists is species-specific and varies substantially - even between closely related species. The freshwater heterotrophic flagellate, Bodo saltans, and two marine flagellates, Paraphysomonas bandaiensis and P. imperforata, had reduced motility and feeding when exposed to UV-A radiation (Ochs 1997; Sommaruga et al. 1996). B. saltans and B. caudatus also accumulated greater DNA damage after exposure to UV-B than did chrysomonad or cryptomonad flagellates (Sommaruga and Buma 2000). The ciliate Stentor coerulus was sensitive to UV-B exposure (Häder and Häder 1991), but S. araucanus showed no difference in the proportion of survivors when treatments were shielded from UVR (Modenutti et al. 1998). During in situ incubations of arctic ciliate populations, UV-B had strong negative effects on Askinasia sp. and Bursaridium sp., moderate negative effects on Halteria sp. and Strombidium sp., and no apparent effect on Urotricha sp. (Wickham and Carstens 1998). Our research on the protozoa isolated from the UV-transparent Lake Giles - ciliates Cyclidium sp. and Glaucoma sp., and the heterotrophic flagellate Paraphysomonas vestita - also indicate a wide range of sensitivities to UV-B exposure

useful and harmful effects of fungi-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Useful Effects of Fungi

*
Helps break up dead organisms and waste matter

*
Fertilizes soil

*
One mold produces the drug “Penicillin”

*
Flavor of the cheese “Roquefort” is a type of mold

*
Helps control insects that are harming crops

Harmful effects of fungi to humans
A number of moulds and yeasts cause human and animal diseases. For example, species of Aspergillus, Fusarium, and Sporothrix are opportunistic pathogens and easily infect individuals with weak immune systems.

A number of other moulds are well recognized causes of allergic reactions. For example Penicillium roquefortii and Aspergillus clavatus are causes of pulmonary allergy in the cheese and brewery industries respectively. Arthrinium casues skin allergies of cane harvesters.

Apart from infection and allergies, some moulds produce toxic compounds that are harmful to both humans and animals. The best known of these toxins is aflatoxin. Aflatoxin is mainly produced by some species of Aspergillus such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasitica. Aflatoxin is a powerful trigger of cancer (i.e., it is carcinogenic).


Harmful effects of fungi to plants
Majority of plant diseases are caused by fungi. The plant diseases caused by fungi range from tissue death to vascular wilting. Fungi cause both field and storage losses of agricultural products.

useful and harmful effects of algae-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Algae are a natural and critical part of our Chesapeake and Coastal Bays ecosystems. Algae, like land plants, capture the sun’s energy and support the food web that leads to fish and shellfish. They occur in a size range from tiny microscopic cells floating in the water column (phytoplankton) to large mats of visible “macroalgae” that grow on bottom sediments.

Algae may become harmful if they occur in an unnaturally high abundance or if they produce a toxin. A high abundance of algae can block sunlight to underwater bay grasses, consume oxygen in the water leading to fish kills, produce surface scum and odors, and interfere with the feeding of shellfish and other organisms that filter water to obtain their food. Some algal species can also produce chemicals that are toxic to humans and aquatic life. Fortunately, of the more than 700 species of algae in Chesapeake Bay, less than 2% of them are believed to have the ability to produce toxic substances.
The blue-green algae Microcystis aeruginosa also had significant blooms in the summer of 2000 in Chesapeake Bay. Algal bloom samples tested toxic and resulted in temporary, precautionary beach closures in the upper Bay. A bloom of Dinophysis acuminata was detected in the Potomac River during the winter 2001 and resulted in a temporary closure of shellfish waters. The shellfish waters were reopened as toxin levels in oysters were found to be below threshold levels by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. The Coastal Bays experienced macroalgae blooms that concerned citizens about their effects on boating, Pfiesteria and Brown tide blooms occurred, and potentially toxic species of Chattonella, Fibrocapsa and Heterosigma were identified in the region for the first time between 2000 and 2002.
Declines in coral cover are generally associated with increases in the abundance of fleshy algae. In many cases, it remains unclear whether algae are responsible, directly or indirectly, for coral death or whether they simply settle on dead coral surfaces. Here, we show that algae can indirectly cause coral mortality by enhancing microbial activity via the release of dissolved compounds. When coral and algae were placed in chambers together but separated by a 0.02 μm filter, corals suffered 100% mortality. With the addition of the broad-spectrum antibiotic ampicillin, mortality was completely prevented. Physiological measurements showed complementary patterns of increasing coral stress with proximity to algae. Our results suggest that as human impacts increase and algae become more abundant on reefs a positive feedback loop may be created whereby compounds released by algae enhance microbial activity on live coral surfaces causing mortality of corals and further algal growth.
usefule effects

Freshwater algal blooms

Freshwater algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients, particularly phosphorus.[1] The excess of nutrients may originate from fertilizers that are applied to land for agricultural or recreational purposes, these nutrients can then enter watersheds through water runoff.[2] Excess carbon and nitrogen have also been suspected as causes.

When phosphates are introduced into water systems, higher concentrations cause increased growth of algae and plants. Algae tend to grow very quickly under high nutrient availability, but each alga is short-lived, and the result is a high concentration of dead organic matter which starts to decay. The decay process consumes dissolved oxygen in the water, resulting in hypoxic conditions. Without sufficient dissolved oxygen in the water, animals and plants may die off in large numbers.

Blooms may be observed in freshwater aquariums when fish are overfed and excess nutrients are not absorbed by plants. These are not generally harmful for fish, and the situation can be corrected by changing the water in the tank and then reducing the amount of food given.
# Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria are single-celled organisms that live in fresh, brackish, and marine water and can use up the oxygen and block the sunlight that other organisms need to live and can produce powerful toxins that affect the brain and liver of animals and humans ...more
# Harmful Marine Algae

* Ciguatera
Ciguatera fish poisoning is an illness caused by eating fish that contain toxins produced by a marine microalgae ...more
* Red Tide
Overgrowth of the microscopic marine algae called Karenia brevis can create blooms that can make the ocean appear red or brown. People often call these blooms “red tide” ...more

# Pfiesteria piscicida
Pfiesteria piscicida is a microscopic alga that lives in estuaries—where freshwater streams or rivers mix with salt water—along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts

useful and harmful effects of virus-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Examples of common human diseases caused by viruses include the common cold, the flu, chickenpox and cold sores. Serious diseases such as Ebola, AIDS, avian influenza and SARS are caused by viruses. The relative ability of viruses to cause disease is described in terms of virulence. Other diseases are under investigation as to whether they too have a virus as the causative agent, such as the possible connection between Human Herpesvirus Six (HHV6) and neurological diseases such as multiple sclerosis and chronic fatigue syndrome. There is current controversy over whether the borna virus, previously thought of as causing neurological diseases in horses, could be responsible for psychiatric illnesses in humans.
Resistance to and recovery from viral infections will depend on the interactions that occur between virus and host. The defenses mounted by the host may act directly on the virus or indirectly on virus replication by altering or killing the infected cell. The non-specific host defenses function early in the encounter with virus to prevent or limit infection while the specific host defenses function after infection in recovery immunity to subsequent challenges. Although the host defense mechanisms involved in a particular viral infection will vary depending on the virus, dose and portal of entry, some general principals of virus-host interactions are summarized below.

BARRIERS TO INFECTION

Inherent Barriers
The host has a number of barriers to infection that are inherent to the organism. These represent the first line of defense which function to prevent or limit infection.

Skin
The skin acts a formidable barrier to most viruses and only after this barrier is breached will viruses be able to infect the host.

Lack of Membrane Receptors
Viruses gain entry into host cells by first binding to specific receptors on cells (Table 1; adapted from: Roitt, Immunology, 5th Ed).


other references

useful and harmful effects of bacteria-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Bacteria
are the microorganisms which have both the positive and negative impacts for us. They are beneficial for us because they are used in a number of industries like for producing dairy products like yogurt, cheese etc. They are also used in Leather industry for making leather. Bacterias are also economical beneficial organisms because Nitrogen fixing bacterias, increases the fertility of the soil by processing nitrogen in the soil. Bacteria are also important for our health because they are present in our body and are producing a vitamin type in our body. Moreover, bacteria are also used in manufacturing medicines like anti-bacterial medicines.

There are various harmful effects of bacteria as well. For example, bacteria in our body can cause gastrointestinal infections as a result of the ingestion of contaminated food. Such bacterias include Escherichia coli, Proteus or Klebsiella species. Bacteria can also make our food contaminated and they can cause many serious bacterial diseases. Moreover, if they are used in many food products industries
, then they can also spoil the food as well, which can cause huge losses.
In the digestive tract are bacteria, the most famous of which is Lactobacillus acidopholus, which aid in digestion, compete with possibly virulent bacteria that are inhaled on a daily basis, synthesize vitamins, convert dietary fiber, and degrade toxins. There are more bacteria in the large intestine than there are cells in the human body. The bacteria also aid in developing a vigorous immune response; more than half of the body's immune tissue is located in the lining of the small intestine. All of the digestive tract bacteria are discharged from the body daily and renewed without causing disease. Antibiotics actually end up depleting the intestinal flora leaving a person susceptible to other infections.

Staphylococcus epidermidis and P. acnes are two bacterial species that are naturally present on the skin; Streptococcus mutans is present in the mouth. These bacteria species can cause infection, acne, or dental plaques if not kept in check, but also compete out more virulent species of bacteria. Eliminating these colonizing species altogether would leave a person vulnerable to more severe infections.

There are also now bacteria being added to foods such as yogurt, which is itself a probiotic (live bacteria) culture. These are expected to aid in immune responses and digestion as well as alleviate lactose intolerance. Both Yoplait and Breyers brands tout such "live and active cultures" of useful bacteria.
other benifits:

# Transform organic carbon to carbon dioxide (CO2)
# use up oxygen when sufficient carbon is available for growth
# transform nitrogen between oxidized (e.g., nitrate - NO3) and reduced (e.g., ammonium - NH4 or nitrogen gas - N2) forms
# transform iron between oxidized [Fe(III)] and reduced [Fe(II)] forms
# transform sulfur between oxidized (e.g., sulfate - SO4) and reduced (e.g., sulfide - H2S) forms
# produce methane
# degrade pesticides, fuels and other organic contaminants
# affect the distribution and solubility of some metals (e.g., arsenic, uranium, etc.)
Harmful bacteria

* Certain bacteria act as pathogens and cause tetanus, typhoid fever, pneumonia, syphilis, cholera, food-borne illness and tuberculosis.
* Streptococcus bacteria may cause small infections like strep throat and some serious diseases like pneumonia. Certain streptococci may be fatal.
* Bacteria that usually live harmlessly in the body may cause infections when a person's resistance to disease is reduced in conditions such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome).
* Not all stomach bacteria are beneficial, some of the stomach bacteria enter the body through the mouth, and they can survive in the acidic conditions in the stomach and can cause serious diseases and can be fatal.
* Campylobacter is a group of bacteria that can create illnesses in humans and is a common cause of food poisoning.
* Harmful bacteria in food cause botulism, which can cause paralysis or even death if even one millionth of the bacterium is ingested.
* Yersinia pestis or bubonic plague, is a rod-shaped type of bacterium which is well known for its harmful nature. Bacteria-carrying fleas found on animals such as rats and mice transmit the bacteria that are believed to have caused the deaths of millions of people in human history.

Reproduction-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of reproduction. The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual.
In asexual reproduction, an individual can reproduce without involvement with another individual of that species. The division of a bacterial cell into two daughter cells is an example of asexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is not, however, limited to single-celled organisms. Most plants have the ability to reproduce asexually.
Asexual reproduction is the process by which an organism creates a genetically-similar or identical copy of itself without a contribution of genetic material from another individual. Bacteria divide asexually via binary fission; viruses take control of host cells to produce more viruses; Hydras (invertebrates of the order Hydroidea) and yeasts are able to reproduce by budding. These organisms do not have different sexes, and they are capable of "splitting" themselves into two or more individuals. Some 'asexual' species, like hydra and jellyfish, may also reproduce sexually. For instance, most plants are capable of vegetative reproduction—reproduction without seeds or spores—but can also reproduce sexually. Likewise, bacteria may exchange genetic information by conjugation. Other ways of asexual reproduction include parthogenesis, fragmentation and spore formation that involves only mitosis. Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin", + γένεσις genesis, "creation") is the growth and development of embryo or seed without fertilization by a male. Parthenogenesis occurs naturally in some species, including lower plants (where it is called apomixis), invertebrates (e.g. water fleas, aphids, some bees and parasitic wasps), and vertebrates (e.g. some reptiles,[1] fish, and, very rarely, birds[2] and sharks[3]). It is sometimes also used to describe reproduction modes in hermaphroditic species which can self-fertilize.
Sexual reproduction requires the involvement of two individuals, typically one of each sex.
Allogamy is a term used in the field of biological reproduction describing the fertilization of an ovum from one individual with the spermatozoa of another.
Autogamy

Self-fertilization (also known as autogamy) occurs in hermaphroditic organisms where the two gametes fused in fertilization come from the same individual. They are bound and all the cells merge to form one new gamete.
Mitosis and meiosis

Mitosis and meiosis are an integral part of cell division. Mitosis occurs in somatic cells, while meiosis occurs in gametes.

Mitosis The resultant number of cells in mitosis is twice the number of original cells. The number of chromosomes in the daughter cells is the same as that of the parent cell.
Meiosis The resultant number of cells is four times the number of original cells. This results in cells with half the number of chromosomes present in the parent cell. A diploid cell duplicates itself, then undergoes two divisions (tetraploid to diploid to haploid), in the process forming four haploid cells. This process occurs in two phases, meiosis I and meiosis II.

LOcomotion-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Search Wiktionary Look up locomotion in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

The term locomotion means movement or travel. It may refer to:

* Motion (physics)
* Animal locomotion
o Terrestrial locomotion
* Travel

Locomotion may refer to specific types of motion:

* Gait analysis
* walking
* running, including trotting
* jumping, including leaping gaits
* crawling
* climbing
* swimming
* flying

Locomotion may also refer to:

* Locomotion No 1, an early steam locomotive
* Robot locomotion
* Shildon Locomotion Museum, in the town of Shildon, County Durham, England.
* Locomotion (TV channel), cable TV channel in Latin America
* Loco Motion (Youth Group), a film and media club based in Essex, UK.
* Locomotion (periodical)

Nutrition and types of nutrition-FOB-btechbiotechnology-introduction to microorganisms-1st chapter

Nutrition (also called nourishment or aliment) is the provision, to cells and organisms, of the materials necessary (in the form of food) to support life. Many common health problems can be prevented or alleviated with a healthy diet.
Animal nutrition.The human body contains chemical compounds, such as water, carbohydrates (sugar, starch, and fiber), amino acids (in proteins), fatty acids (in lipids), and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). These compounds in turn consist of elements such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and so on. All of these chemical compounds and elements occur in various forms and combinations (e.g. hormones, vitamins, phospholipids, hydroxyapatite), both in the human body and in the plant and animal organisms that humans eat.
Carbohydrates may be classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides depending on the number of monomer (sugar) units they contain.Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so.
Proteins are the basis of many animal body structures (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enyzmes which control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each molecule is composed of amino acids which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair).
Dietary minerals are the chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules.
Many elements are essential in relative quantity; they are usually called "bulk minerals". Some are structural, but many play a role as electrolytes.[3] Elements with recommended dietary allowance (RDA) greater than 200 mg/day are, in alphabetical order (with informal or folk-medicine perspectives in parentheses):
Trace minerals.
* Cobalt required for biosynthesis of vitamin B12 family of coenzymes
* Copper required component of many redox enzymes, including cytochrome c oxidase
* Chromium required for sugar metabolism
* Iodine required not only for the biosynthesis of thyroxin, but probably, for other important organs as breast, stomach, salivary glands, thymus etc. (see Extrathyroidal iodine); for this reason iodine is needed in larger quantities than others in this list, and sometimes classified with the macrominerals
* Iron required for many enzymes, and for hemoglobin and some other proteins
* Manganese (processing of oxygen)
* Molybdenum required for xanthine oxidase and related oxidases
* Nickel present in urease
* Selenium required for peroxidase (antioxidant proteins)
* Vanadium (Speculative: there is no established RDA for vanadium. No specific biochemical function has been identified for it in humans, although vanadium is required for some lower organisms.)
* Zinc required for several enzymes such as carboxypeptidase, liver alcohol dehydrogenase, carbonic anhydrase


This type of nutrition involves the taking in of solid particles of food which have to be further broken down into simpler particles inside the organism (there are exceptions which are called fluid feeders. Think of at least two of them. Look for answers in the Q & A section). These particles may be big or small.
For example, Hydra and sea anemone are called macrophagous feeders as they take in large pieces of food. Animals like the earthworm and mussels are called microphagous feeders as they take in food which is in very small particles. Earthworms are also called detritivores as they feed on dead plant and animal matter. However, the digestion takes place inside the body and hence they are also considered holozoic. Holozoic nutrition involves ingestion of food, its digestion, absorption and assimilation.


'Sapros' refers to rotten and 'trophic' refers to food. Saprotrophic nutrition is the process by which the organisms feed on dead and decaying matter. The food is digested outside the cells or even the body of the organism - extracellular digestion. The organism secretes digestive juices that contain enzymes directly on to the food. The digestion makes the food soluble and it is then absorbed by the organism.
Examples of saprophytes:

Plants which have saprotrophic nutrition are Rhizopus (bread mould), Mucor (pin mould), Yeast, Agaricus (mushroom), many bacteria etc.
Examples of saprozoans:

(animals which have saprotrophic nutrition) are Mastigamoeba and Chilomonas. The digestive juices are secreted by the cell membranes which means the general body surface as they are single-celled protozoans.
Saprotrophs are different from detritus feeders which do not digest their food outside the body.